hofstede cultural dimensions masculinity vs femininity

Note: Advanced postindustrial democracies (N = 25; Nrespondents = 153,868) include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmarka, Finland, Francea, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italya, Japan, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United States. Note: Dots above the Isoline changed toward Trust, dots below toward less Trust. These findings connect and enrich two literatures concerned with similar phenomena yet operating in isolation from each other. (Hofstede et al., 2010, p. 281). Singelis T. M., Triandis H. C., Bhawuk D. P. S., Gelfand M. (1995). Figure 9 shows the scores on the DistrustTrust dimension for the same five birth cohorts. An overview of Hofstede inspired country level culture studies in international business, Journal of International Business Studies, Culture in economics, history methodological reflections and contemporary applications. What is the perfect Organisational Culture? This page titled 6.2: Hofstedes dimensions of culture theory is shared under a CC BY-NC license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Nolan Weil (Rebus Community) . Applying Ingleharts dynamic concept to our three dimensions, we find that orientations are shifting over the generations (a) from Collectivism toward Individualism and (b) from Duty toward Joyto the extent that socioeconomic development improves objective living conditions that way. We have tested whether including this generalized trust question in the first dimension affects our analysis in Ingleharts Dynamics: Intergenerational Culture Shift section, and it does not (see Online Appendix Table A4). Apart from this principled point, we see three more specific implications of our study. The resulting fixed effect can be interpreted as the unique country-specific determinant of scores on the three dimensions of national culture. Interestingly, whereas higher scores on trust have been shown to have a positive effect on economic development (Beugelsdijk, De Groot, & van Schaik, 2004; Beugelsdijk & van Schaik, 2005), our cohort analysis shows that over time generations have moved in the direction toward distrust. According to Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, there are four dimensions to cultures around the world. They tend to belong to fewer groups but are defined more by their membership in them. In Feminine countries the focus is on working in order to live, managers strive for consensus, people value equality, solidarity and quality in their working lives. Given the downward-sloping cohort pattern in the earliest survey and given that there is no life-cyclical decline in Trust as cohorts age, mere cohort replacement would have shifted downward the mean level of Trust over time. The horizontal axis depicts the score on the CollectivismIndividualism dimension for the first survey wave. Using a variety of indicators, Hamamura (2012) not only reports a shift toward individualism in the United States and Japan but also highlights the persistent cultural heritage in these two countries, a finding in line with Ingleharts revised modernization thesis. Communication Accommodation Theory and Hofstede's Dimensions of This has led critics to question the representativeness of the original sample. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine). This interpretation is supported by the fact that differences in what Minkov and Bond (2015) call the long-term life strategy gene complex maps on the DistrustTrust difference, with Sub-Saharan Africans and East Asians being the most polar groups. As a conclusion, the students are more femininity oriented, even though there are several answers that characterize a masculine culture Regarding favour , 55,6 . This third dimension captures beliefs about the nature of human behavior, a classic cultural dimension (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). Finally, we find only two items that correlate (weakly) with Masculinity versus Femininity. Hofstede himself initially labeled this dimension Individualism-Company orientation, but chose to use the Collectivism pole instead. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. Email: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (, ONLINE_APPENDIX_final Supplemental material for Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart, GUID:08293F7A-C497-4190-AD31-59B6B0A38C81. Perception of cross-generational differences in child behavior and parent socialization: A mixed-method interview study with Chinese grandmothers, http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/, https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage, Beugelsdijk, Kostova, Kunst, Spadafora, & van Essen, 2018, House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004, Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, & Gelfand, 1995, Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988, Javidan, House, Dorfman, Hanges, and de Luque (2006), Gelfand, Bhawuk, Nishii, & Bechtold, 2004, Beugelsdijk, De Groot, & van Schaik, 2004, http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/maddison-project/home.htm, One of the main goals in my life is to make my parents proud, Private versus state ownership of business, Please tell me if homosexuality can be justified, Please tell me if abortion can be justified, When jobs are scarce: Employers should give priority to (own nation) people than immigrants, How much confidence you have in justice system. VIF = variance inflation factor; OLS = ordinary least squares. Within a business, Hofstedes framework can also help managers to understand why their employees behave the way they do. Although the item to observation ratio becomes rather low in such a factor analysis, this does suggest that the Masculinity dimension is unique to Hofstedes framework. (2015). Rising IQ in the twenty-first century, Assessing construct validity in organizational research, Trust: The social virtues and the creation of prosperity. Individualistic societies stress achievement and individual rights, focusing on the needs of oneself and ones immediate family. And long-term vs. short-term orientation can help explain why some cultures focus more on the future than the present (Hofstede, 2011). The question arises to what extent cultural change is driven by autonomous cohort effects, economic development or country-specific historical trajectories. A second point of critique concerns the labeling of the dimensions and the associated face validity of their content (Minkov, 2018). But as soon as people feel safe, they begin to prioritize freedom because freedom is essential to thrive, in allowing ingenuity, creativity, and recreational pleasure. Japan has been a paternalistic society and the family name and asset was inherited from father to the eldest son. Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern or Nordic exceptionalism? Masculinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity implies a society's preference for assertiveness, heroism, achievement and material reward for attaining success. 12.A careful look at the country scores shows that Vietnam, Uzbekistan, and China score relatively high on trust (low on distrust). Long-Term Orientation Restraint vs. The essentials of scholarship: A reply to Geert Hofstede. This finding is supportive of the notion that societies have gone through a period of cultural change over the time span of approximately one generation. High Uncertainty Avoidance is associated with a large fraction of people saying that generally speaking you cannot trust people and need to be careful in dealing with people. Adaptive value shifts of this kind happen to some extent within generations but they usually proceed much more profoundly between generations because people tend to stick more strongly to their once adopted values as they age. Beugelsdijk S., Maseland R., van Hoorn A. PPTX PowerPoint-presentatie - Geert Hofstede Sparked by Jared Diamonds (1997) epic Guns, Germs and Steel, this literature (for an overview, see Spolaore & Wacziarg, 2009) focuses on historically remote factors at the origin of long-lasting, highly inert country trajectories that stretch well into the present. Interestingly, the time trend has affected the older cohorts in the earliest survey more than the younger cohorts, for which reason the cohort differences appear evened out at the latest survey. Together, Hofstede and Inglehart have received over 200,000 citations, making them two of the worlds most frequently quoted social scientists (Google Scholar). The findings reveal a. This is obvious from the fact that the upward-sloping cohort patterns in Individualism and Joy remain basically unchanged and run closely parallel throughout the two points in time. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21 (1), 149. The same holds true for Hofstedes IBM data, for which reason a replication with cross-national representative data from around the world is a strong desideratum. Individualism vs. collectivism anchor opposite ends of a continuum that describes how people define themselves and their relationships with others. The correspondence between objective living conditions and subjective life orientations consists in the fact that preventive closure is adaptive under pressing threats, while promotive openness is adaptive in the presence of promising opportunities. Although the cultural value dimensions identified by Hofstede and others are useful ways to think about culture and study cultural psychology, the theory has been chronically questioned and critiqued. Masculine vs. Feminine Cultures: Distinctions - Study.com We include the item on (lack of) trust in the factor that reflects Uncertainty Avoidance (Dimension 3), because Hofstede has related lack of trust to Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede, 2001, p. 169; Minkov & Hofstede, 2014, p. 165), and this trust question is related to institutional well-functioning (Beugelsdijk & Maseland, 2011). From an empirical point of view, Hofstedes six-dimensional framework (4 IBM-based + 2 WVS-based) consists of four dimensions (3 IBM-based + 1 WVS-based).6 As explained in detail in Hofstedes Dimensions: A WVS-EVS Based Re-Examination section below, our WVS-EVS based analysis mimics this correlational structure. Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. This is the reason why generalized interpersonal trust, impartial governance, rule of law. Note: Advanced postindustrial democracies (N = 25; Nrespondents = 153,868) include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmarka, Finland, Francea, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italya, Japan, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, United States. Note: Advanced postindustrial democracies (N = 25; Nrespondents = 153,868) include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmarka, Finland, Francea, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italya, Japan, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United States. FOIA A tendency toward a relatively weak control over their impulses is called "Indulgence", whereas a relatively strong control over their urges is called "Restraint". Kirkman B. L., Lowe K. B., Gibson C. B. and transmitted securely. South Africa scores 63 on this dimension and is thus a Masculine society. The difference between Individualism and Collectivism is by no means one of affiliations per se but of the form of affiliations that prevail. Javidan M., House R. J., Dorfman P. W., Hanges P. J., de Luque M. S. (2006). Restraint. The country-specific scores in CollectivismIndividualism correlate slightly positively (r = .20) but barely significantly (p = .05; N = 96) with those in DutyJoy. Hofstede distinguishes between Individualism and Power Distance because they are conceptually distinct (Hofstede, 1980, p. 62).5 Empirically, however, they are part of one dimension and represent the two ends of one dimension. In the same spirit, we have tested whether exclusion of the question on state versus private ownership from the first dimension affects our findings. Geert Hofstede, in his pioneer study looking at differences in culture across modern nations, identified four dimensions of cultural values: individualism-collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity-femininity. We also include the 45 line. Are scores on Hofstedes dimensions stable over time? Cool Water accounts for by far most of this explained variation, despite the fact that it is the most remote historic driver. Measured on a scale of 1-100 for instance, Denmark scores very low and Mexico scores quite high. In more highly individualistic societies, the interests of individuals receive more emphasis than those of the group (e.g., the family, the company, etc.). As a result, values such as self-expression and autonomy begin to replace self-restraint and obedience (Inglehart, 1990, 1997; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005; Welzel, 2013). 14.Because of the break-up of countries, the data series are not complete. WVS = World Values Surveys; EVS = European Values Studies. A fixed-effects model here is the most powerful and simplest model to explain culture shifts. Ingleharts dynamic concept of culture, by contrast, prevails in sociology and political science. Beugelsdijk S., De Groot H. L. F., van Schaik T. (2004). 8.We would note that Hofstede himself has been quoted for saying that If I would do it again, I would use the WVS, clearly suggesting his generally favorable approach toward the WVS. Traits of Masculinity / Femininity. But in terms of representative population data, it remains limited to Europe. Building Your Brand. In summary, there are pronounced residual variances in our three cultural dimensions that remain unexplicable by contemporary country characteristics. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. Otherwise, the younger cohorts higher scores on Individualism and Joy during the earliest survey would have to be declining as these cohorts aged, which is not at all the case. Drastic events may affect generations differently and different generations may therefore have different fixpoints around which they adjust their values to changing circumstances (Hofstede, 1980). The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals) from each other. Indulgence stands for a tendency to allow relatively free gratification of basic and human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. In a masculine culture, men are expected to be assertive, competitive, and focused on material success. Sjoerd Beugelsdijk, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Nettelbosje 2, Groningen 9700 AV, The Netherlands. In contrast, Hofstede says a feminine culture or feminine society is one where gender roles are more fluid. While Hofstede has been questioned for presuming a too stable notion of national culture, his framework has also been questioned for overestimating the number of dimensions, misinterpreting their meaning, and using data of questionable quality (Ailon, 2008; Baskerville, 2003; Baskerville-Morley, 2005; Fang, 2003; McSweeney, 2002, 2009; Taras et al., 2012; Venaik & Brewer, 2016). For reasons explained in the main text, we drop Items 9 and 12 from the analysis. Hence, Individualism embodies a strong anti-authoritarian impulse that aligns naturally with Power Distance. and identical political systems (Hofstede, 2011). Combined, this database covers 110 countries and 495,011 individuals. Higher scores on the third dimension Distrust-Trust mean lower scores on Hofstedes Uncertainty Avoidance. Taking stock in our progress on individualism-collectivism: 100 years of solidarity and community, Generation cohorts and personal values: A comparison of China and the United States, A critique of Hofstedes fifth national culture dimension, International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, The new politics, culture wars, and the authoritarian-libertarian value change in advanced industrial democracies, The Rise of the Creative Class and how it is transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life, Are we getting smarter? According to Hofstede (1997: 161), the resulting Chinese Values Survey overlapped with three of Hofstedes dimensions: power distance, individualism, and masculinity although not with the uncertainty avoidance dimension. Alternative frameworks and dimensions of national culture have appeared since, such as the Globe study (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004) and most notably the Schwartz Personal Values Inventory (Schwartz, 1994, 2004). For example, to understand why certain human resource practices are more or less effective in an organizational context, it is critical to take into account that societies orientations toward the role of hierarchy and Individualism have changed, and that the younger generation has expectations and preferences that differ from older generations. Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y. R. (2007). PDF Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Masculinity and Femininity Note: Cluster adjusted standard errors in parentheses. Value orientations from the World Values Survey: How comparable are they cross-nationally? To explore intergenerational value shift in our Hofstede-inspired multidimensional framework, we applied Ingleharts definition of generations using birth cohorts. Hofstede agrees with this modified notion of modernization theory implying the existence of multiple paths to modernity (cf. Masculinity vs. Femininity When it comes to this dimension, the question is whether the emphasis is on the status, achievement and success in life or the quality of life, serving others and the protection of the environment and nature are the priorities of the given country. All these studies focus on replicating one or more of the dimensions as such, but they have not addressed cultural change over time. To begin with DutyJoy, the most important marker of country specificities in this dimension is the fate of having been part of the Soviet Union and an occupied territory around 1900. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Psychological review, 114(1), 133. Moreover, we select only those items that have been included in all waves, as our cohort analysis requires a longitudinal dataset. 29-31). Building Your Network. A cluster analysis for 86 countries on the basis of our dimensions is in line with intuition and previous clustering attempts (Ronen & Shenkar, 2013), thus increasing the credibility of these newly created dimensions (see the online appendix). Finally, Hofstedes cultural dimensions can be used to help businesses adapt their products and marketing to different cultures. They possess a positive attitude and have a tendency towards optimism. Country-Level Factor Analysis of Hofstedes Six Dimensions. Using a variety of psychometric techniques commonly used in cross-cultural and comparative social science research, we are able to re-examine Hofstedes dimensions of national culture for 110 countries using WVS-EVS data. While the country scores for the four original dimensions are derived from surveys conducted at IBM, the scores for the latter two dimensions are calculated from data of the WVS. The coverage is limited for the first cohort (1900-1919). . Opinions expressed by the author are not necessarily those of WITI. Individuals in societies that have a high degree of power distance accept hierarchies where everyone has a place in a ranking without the need for justification. Finally, a replication of Hofstedes study, conducted across 93 separate countries, confirmed the existence of the five dimensions and identified a sixth known as indulgence and restraint (Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). Initially, this fifth dimension was labeled Confucian Dynamism to reflect the Confucian nature of the values it included. According to Hofstede insights (Satam, Saddam & Ali, 2018), Nigeria scored 60% culturally in Masculinity and 80% in Power Distance. Individuals with values typically found in societies that score high on this dimension (i.e., less restraint, more indulgence) tend to live in bigger cities, do not find a good income important in a job, embrace democracy, and find imagination an important child quality. Specifically, we have seen that Ingleharts dynamic theory, which has been criticized for a reductionist dimensionality, applies to the multidimensional framework of Hofstede who has been criticized for a stationary concept of culture. 1.The first (and only) time Ronald Inglehart and Geert Hofstede met face to face was at a conference organized by the European Values Studies (EVS) team at Tilburg University, the Netherlands, in 2002. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future. This is confirmed by the positive correlation between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and CollectivismIndividualism (.71), DutyJoy (.51), and DistrustTrust (.24).Although the changing scores on each of the dimensions over a 15-year period are suggestive of a generational effect, we should be careful when interpreting these patterns. Power Distance (high versus low), individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and uncertainty avoidance index (high versus low). This means that there is no supporting time-trend effect in Individualism and Joy, so that cohort replacement alone shifted the mean upward. The (first) CollectivismIndividualism dimension mimics Hofstedes Individualism dimension. 6.The Masculinity dimension extracted by Hofstede continues to form a separate factor even after adding Schwartzs value dimensions and/or Globes value dimensions. masculine Hofstedes current framework consists of six dimensions for which the country scores can be downloaded from his website (www.geerthofstede.com). Note: Dots above the Isoline changed toward Joy, dots below toward Duty. Masculinity is seen to be the trait which emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender roles. Although none of the three questions originally used by Hofstede relate to hierarchy in the family, Hofstede has argued that Power Distance extends to the family (Hofstede, 2001). Masculine traits include assertiveness, materialism/material success, self-centeredness, power, strength, and individual achievements. The final result is shown in Table 6. The three-factor solution suggests that the selected WVS-EVS items can be used to capture Individualism and Power Distance (what we call Dimension 1), Long-Term Orientation/IVR (what we call Dimension 2), and Uncertainty Avoidance (what we call Dimension 3). Here, we discuss the most stunning links with remote historical drivers. Test statistics for multicollinearity (VIFs), heteroskedasticity (White-test), and influential cases (DFFITs) show no violations of OLS assumptions. Hofstede et al. Societies that score higher on the masculinity scale tend to value assertiveness, competition, and material success. Countries scoring low on the first dimension having more traditional-collectivist values believe in God and feel that respect is important in a job and that obedience is an important child quality. The implication of this is that cultures endorse and expect relations that are more consultative or democratic, or egalitarian. Making Sense of Cross Cultural Communication. A more detailed discussion on the data collection and psychometric techniques used can be found in Hofstede (1980, 2001), Hofstede et al. Femininity vs. masculinity, also known as gender role differentiation, is yet another one of Hofstedes six dimensions of national culture. We explain considerably less variance in country specificities across the other two dimensions: DutyJoy (51%) and DistrustTrust (44%). The relation between GDP per capita and DistrustTrust is marginally significant ( = 2.76; p < .10). The point is that variance/co-variance patterns in psychological orientations are much stronger between than within countries and that the power of culture is responsible for that: culture tends to delimit psychological variation within entities and to expand it between them. This theoretical framework has been confirmed by recent findings in psychology using completely different data. South Africa scores 63 on this dimension and is thus a Masculine society. Each country has been positioned relative to other . Is America masculine or feminine Hofstede? The writings in sociology and political science on cultural change are dominated by modernization theory, predicting that continued economic development goes together with predictable changes in norms, values, and beliefs (Bell, 1973; Flanagan, 1987; Inglehart, 1971, 1990, 1997; Inkeles, 1960; Inkeles & Smith, 1974; McClelland, 1961; Nash, 1964; Welzel, 2013). Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). By contrast, if one lets the data decide if the 20 items cohere in two clearly distinct dimensions, the answer is a resounding No: There is just one dimension, which is mostly due to the fact that the traditional end in Traditional versus Secular-rational Values and the survival end in Survival versus Self-expression Values are highly convergent (Li & Bond, 2010). A correlation between the country scores on this dimension and other WVS-EVS items shows that countries that score low on this second dimension (i.e., emphasizing restraint) score high on the importance of hard work as an important child quality, and that people are in need because they are lazy. Second, the items that correlate with Uncertainty Avoidance versus Acceptance do not correlate significantly with the other dimensions. We have full data on all three dimensions for 86 countries. For this reason, the psychological power of culture is most visible in the aggregate, that is, in how it shapes entire societies overall orientation. There is a certain degree of inequality in all societies, notes Hofstede; however, there is relatively more equality in some societies than in others. The DistrustTrust dimension is 10 points lower (N = 44). Are you interested in boosting your career, personal development, networking, and giving back? Legal. At 95, Japan is one of the most Masculine societies in the world. A recent replication of the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension using data from the European Social Survey highlights the relevance of anxiety and stress (Minkov & Hofstede, 2014). overlap: A quarter century of cultures consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating Hofstedes cultural values framework, Cultural dimensions, collective values and their importance for institutions, The efect of national culture on the choice of entry mode, On the empirical identification of dimensions for cross-cultural comparisons, Value change: Analyzing national change in citizen secularism across four time periods in the World Values Survey.

Personification For Ice, Articles H